Low-smoke solid fuels pose hidden public health risks via elevated ultrafine particle emissions

Air pollution causes millions of premature deaths worldwide each year, with fine particulate matter (PM2.5) identified as a major culprit. In response, countries from Ireland to China have promoted low-smoke or smokeless fuels as a clean alternative to traditional bituminous coal, peat, and wood. However, the health risks of ultrafine particles (UFPs, PM0.1,

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